Welcome

Welcome… !

Comments

Post a Comment

Popular posts from this blog

Connecting Devices

Image
CONNECTING DEVICES Hosts and networks do not normally operate in isolation. We use connecting devices to connect hosts together to make a network or to connect networks together to make an internet. Connecting devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model. We discuss three kinds of connecting devices: hubs, link-layer switches, and routers. Hubs today operate in the first layer of the Internet model. Link-layer switches operate in the first two layers. Routers operate in the first three layers. Hubs A hub is a device that operates only in the physical layer. Signals that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation endangers the integrity of the data. A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates and retimes the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal. In the past, when Ethernet LANs were using bus topology, a repeater was used to connect two segments ...
Read more

CSMA/CA

Image
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) was invented for wireless networks. Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA’s three strategies: the interframe space, the contention window, and acknowledgments, Interframe Space (IFS)   First, collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle. When an idle channel is found, the station does not send immediately. It waits for a period of time called the interframe space or IFS. Even though the channel may appear idle when it is sensed, a distant station may have already started transmitting. The distant station’s signal has not yet reached this station. The IFS time allows the front of the transmitted signal by the distant station to reach this station. After waiting an IFS time, if the channel is still idle, the station can send, but it still needs to wait a time equal to the contention window. The IFS vari...
Read more

Line Coding

Image
Line Coding Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits. Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal. Below figure shows the process.     Common Characteristics Signal Element versus Data Element Let us distinguish between a data element and a signal element. In data communications, our goal is to send data elements. A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of information: this is the bit. In digital data communications, a signal element carries data elements. A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal. We define a ratio r which is the number of data elements ...
Read more